The Many Faces of Databases Large databases can contain hundreds of
interrelated files. Fortunately a database management system can shield users
from the complex inner workings of the system, providing them with only the
information and commands they need to get their jobs done. In fact, a
well-designed database puts on different faces for different classes of users.
Downsizing and Decentralizing The earliest file management programs could only
do batch processing, which required users to accumulate transactions and feed
them into computers in large batches. These batch systems weren't able to
provide the kind of immediate feedback we expect today. Today disk drives,
inexpensive memory, and sophisticated software have allowed interactive
processing to replace batch processing for most applications. Users can now
interact with data through terminals, viewing and changing values in real time.
Batch processing is still used for printing periodic bills, invoices, and
reports and for making backup copies of data files. But for applications that
demand immediacy, such as airline reservations, banking transactions, and the
like, interactive, multiuser database systems have taken over. Until recently
most databases were housed in mainframe computers. But for a growing number of
organizations, the traditional centralized database on a mainframe system is no
longer the norm. Some companies use a client/server approach: Database software
in client desktop computers works with files stored in central server databases
on mainframes, minicomputers, or desktop computers. Other companies use
distributed databases that use data strewn out across networks on several
different computers. From the user's point of view, the differences between
these approaches may not be apparent. Tomorrow's Databases?
Many computer scientists believe that the relational data model may be
supplanted in the next decade by an object-oriented data model, and that most
future databases will be object-oriented databases rather than relational
databases. Instead of storing records in tables and hierarchies, object-oriented
databases store software objects that contain procedures (or instructions) along
with data. Object-oriented databases often are used in conjunction with
object-oriented programming languages. Tomorrow's databases will be able to
respond intelligently to commands and queries issued in natural human language.
Rules of Thumb: Dealing with Databases A few common-sense rules when working
with file managers or relational database management systems are: o Choose the
right tool for the job. o Think about how you'll get the information out before
you put it in. o Start with a plan, and be prepared to change it. o Make your
data consistent. o Databases are only as good as their data. o Query with care.
o If at first you don't succeed, try another approach. NO SECRETS: COMPUTERS AND
PRIVACY The Privacy Problem Businesses and government agencies spend billions of
dollars every year to collect and exchange information about you and me. For
most of us this data is out of sight and out of mind. But every day lives are
changed because of these databases. Big Brother and Big Business With modern
networked computers it's easy to compile profiles by combining information from
different database files. When files share a unique field, record matching is
trivial and quick. Sometimes the results are clearly beneficial. But these
benefits come with at least three problems: o Data errors are common. o Data can
become nearly immortal. o Data isn't secure. Protection against invasion of
privacy is not explicitly guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution. Legal scholars
agree that the right to privacy-freedom from interference into the private
sphere of a person's affairs-is implied by other constitutional guarantees,
although debates rage about exactly what this means. Federal and state laws
provide various forms of privacy protection, but most of those laws were written
years ago. When it comes to privacy violation, technology is far ahead of the
law. Rules of Thumb: Your Private Rights Here are a few tips for protecting your
right to privacy: o Your Social Security number is yours; don't give it away. o
Don't give away information about yourself. o Say no to direct mail and phone
solicitations. o To maximize your privacy, minimize your profile. o If you think
there's incorrect or damaging information about you in a file, find out. o
Support organizations that fight for privacy rights.
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